Philosophy

The belief that the appreciation of art and beauty is the highest state of the human mind (held by Wilde, Whistler)		Aestheticism
The belief that it is impossible to know whether or not God exists		Agnosticism
Living and acting in the interests of others rather than oneself		Altruism
A lifestyle characterized by abstinence from worldly pleasures, often for the purpose of pursuing spiritual goals		Asceticism
The belief that all things are determined by causes – the converse of free will		Determinism
The belief that that knowledge comes only or primarily via sensory experience		Empiricism
The branch of philosophy concerned with the concepts of right and wrong, or good and bad behaviour		Ethics
The belief that the self and the uniqueness of each individual’s experience are the basis for understanding human nature: Søren Kierkegaard (Denmark, 1813–55) is widely considered to be its first exponent; others included Sartre, Camus and Heidegger		Existentialism
The belief that all events are the result of unavoidable necessity		Fatalism
Chinese metaphysical and quasi–philosophical system, closely linked to Taoism: seeks to harmonise individuals with their surrounding environment; name translates as 'wind water'		Feng shui (fung shway)
The belief that pleasure is the highest form of human fulfilment		Hedonism
Study of the principles of reality, transcending those of any particular scientific discipline; described by Aristotle as "the first philosophy"		Metaphysics
The belief that values do not exist but are falsely invented (from the Latin word for 'nothing')		Nihilism
The belief (originating in ancient Greece) that one should avoid the postulation of final truths; its followers asserted nothing but only gave opinions		Scepticism
The belief that "nothing exists except me and my mental state"		Solipsism
Someone who reasons adroitly and speciously, rather than soundly – or someone who teaches such methods (from the name of an ancient Greek school of philosophy)		Sophist
School founded by Zeno of Citium in Athens in the early 3rd century BC: teaches that as people are social beings, the path to happiness lies in accepting the moment as it presents itself, not allowing oneself to be controlled by the desire for pleasure or fear of pain, using one's mind to understand the world and to do one's part in nature's plan, and working together and treating others fairly and justly		Stoicism
Flourished throughout the Roman and Greek world until the 3rd century AD; its adherents included Epictetus, Seneca and the Emperor Marcus Aurelius		Stoicism
Chinese system said to have been founded by Lao Zi in the 6th century BC; teaches harmonious interaction with the environment		Taoism
Hatha and Raja are the two main branches of		Yoga

A basic principle, assumed to be true without proof

English philosopher and statesman (1561–1626): served as Attorney General (1613–17) and Lord Chancellor (1617–21); argued that scientific knowledge should be based only upon inductive reasoning and careful observation of events in nature, and that scientists should use a sceptical and methodical approach, aiming to avoid misleading themselves; has been called the father of empiricism; knighted in 1603, created Baron Verulam in 1618 and Viscount St. Alban in 1621; the first scientist to be knighted (before Newton!)		Francis Bacon
Anglo–Irish bishop (born in Clonmel, from an ancient English family), advanced a theory that he called "immaterialism" (later referred to as "subjective idealism" by others; California's oldest university is named after him; as well as the city that grew up around it, a chemical element (atomic number 97 – one of six that were discovered there) is named after the university		George Berkeley
Anglo–Irish statesman and philosopher (1729–97): the statement that "the only thing necessary for the triumph of evil is for good men to do nothing" is often attributed to him, despite a complete lack of evidence		Edmund Burke
American philosopher, born 1928: described as "the father of modern linguistics"; known for his critiques of US foreign policy and contemporary capitalism		Noam Chomsky
The Analects (written between around 475 and 220 BC) are a collection of the sayings and ideas of		Confucius
Founder of the Cynics school: lived in a tub; carried a lamp in broad daylight "to search for an honest man"		Diogenes
The Praise of Folly (essay, 1509): author		Erasmus
Common name for Immanuel Kant's "categorical imperative" (frequently stated as "Do unto others as you would have them do unto you")		Golden Rule
German philosopher (1770–1831): developed a distinctive articulation of idealism, sometimes termed 'absolute idealism'; works include The Phenomenology of Spirit (1807) and Philosophy of Right (1821)		Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
Scottish empiricist, 1711–76: articulated "the is–ought problem", which argues that you can't make claims about what ought to be on the basis of statements about what is		David Hume
Ancient Chinese text, illustrating the magical side of Taoism; title commonly translated as 'The Book of Changes'		I Ching
German philosopher, 1724–1804: chiefly remembered for his description of the "categorical imperative" (a.k.a. the Golden Rule)		Immanuel Kant
Danish philosopher, theologian, poet, social critic and religious author (1813–55): widely considered to be the first existentialist philosopher (the 'father of existentialism')		Søren Kierkegaard
The only thing the Proletariat have to sell, according to Marxist theory		Their labour
English philosopher: supported the right to revolt in Two Treatises on Government (1690), which made him a major influence on political thought, especially in France and North America; commonly known (according to Wikipedia) as the Father of Liberalism		John Locke
English–born left–wing writer: works include Common Sense (1776), The Rights of Man (1791), The Age of Reason (1793). Lived in America 1774–87, and fought for the colonists in the War of Independence. Indicted for treason in 1792, escaped to France and represented Calais in the National Convention; returned to America in 1802, and died in New York in 1809 aged 72		Thomas Paine
Danzig–born German philosopher, 1788–1860: best known for The World as Will and Representation (first published 1818, expanded in 1844)		Arthur Schopenhauer
English natural philosopher, 1820–93: coined the phrase "survival of the fittest" (after reading On the Origin of Species)		Herbert Spencer
Born in Vienna, 1889; worked on aeronautics at Manchester University from 1909; studied under Bertrand Russell at Cambridge, and taught there in the 1930s and 40s; died in Cambridge, 1951		Ludwig Wittgenstein

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Philosophy